Radiofrequency energy passes into the skin and meets natural tissue resistance, generating heat in the dermis. Warming the dermis to roughly 40–45°C causes existing collagen fibres to contract for immediate tightening, while triggering fibroblasts to build new collagen (neocollagenesis) over the following weeks.

Microcurrent delivers a very low current, close to the body's own bioelectric signals. At the cellular level it's linked to raised ATP production, the energy cells use to repair themselves. Stronger EMS-style currents go further, prompting a visible muscle contraction that conditions the muscle itself, the way resistance training does.

A mild current drives charged actives — like vitamin C — past the skin's outer barrier more effectively than a serum alone. It works by electrorepulsion: matching the electrode's charge to the active's charge pushes it inward. Best paired with thin, water-based, ionisable serums, not oils or heavy creams.

Gentle oscillation temporarily boosts local blood flow and encourages lymphatic movement, easing the look of puffiness. Fibroblasts are mechanically responsive too, so the vibration itself may support how dermal proteins behave, especially when paired with an active serum applied at the same time.

Warmth lowers the viscosity of oil trapped in a congested pore, helping it clear naturally — it needs at least 4 minutes of contact at 40–42°C to actually work. Cold does the opposite job: it narrows surface blood vessels, calming visible redness and puffiness within minutes.

Photobiomodulation: red (630–660 nm) and near-infrared (810–850 nm) light are absorbed by mitochondria, raising ATP and signalling fibroblasts to build collagen — red for the upper dermis, near-infrared for deeper reach. Blue light (415 nm) targets acne bacteria directly. Orange/amber (590–620 nm) works at the surface, calming redness and tone. More light isn't better — consistent, sensible sessions beat occasional long ones.